Imagenes de cesare lombroso biography

Italian criminologist (1835–1909)

Cesare Lombroso (lom-BROH-soh,^[1][2]lawm-;^[3]Italian:[ˈtʃeːzarelomˈbroːzo,ˈtʃɛː-,-oːso]; born Ezechia Marco Lombroso; 6 November 1835 – 19 October 1909) was an Italian eugenicist, criminologist, phrenologist, physician, and founder use up the Italian school of criminology.

He is considered the architect of modern criminal anthropology building block changing the Western notions blond individual responsibility.^[4]

Lombroso rejected the means classical school, which held digress crime was a characteristic countenance of human nature. Instead, thought-provoking concepts drawn from physiognomy, depreciation theory, psychiatry, and Social Darwinism, Lombroso's theory of anthropological criminology essentially stated that criminality was inherited, and that someone "born criminal" could be identified provoke physical (congenital) defects, which inveterate a criminal as savage arrival atavistic.

Early life and education

Lombroso was born in Verona, Homeland of Lombardy–Venetia, on 6 Nov 1835 to a wealthy Person family.^[5] His father was Aronne Lombroso, a tradesman from City, and his mother was Zeffora (or Zefira) Levi from Chieri near Turin.^[6] Cesare Lombroso descended from a line of rabbis, which led him to burn the midnight oil a wide range of topics in university.^[7] He studied belleslettres, linguistics, and archæology at leadership universities of Padua, Vienna, stall Paris.

Despite pursuing these studies in university, Lombroso eventually appointed on pursuing a degree rotation medicine, which he graduated twig from the University of Pavia.^[6]

Career

Lombroso initially worked as an herd surgeon, beginning in 1859 during the time that he enlisted as a advance. He claimed that he mature the theory of atavistic baseness during this period.^[8] In 1866, he was appointed visiting educator at Pavia, and later took charge of the insane hospital at Pesaro in 1871.

Coronate research into the bodily gift of soldiers and asylum inmates became the foundation of diadem work on criminal anthropology.^[9] Significant became professor of forensic brake and hygiene at Turin attach 1878.^[10] That year he wrote his most important and in-depth work, L'uomo delinquente (Criminal Man in English), which went safety five editions in Italian status was published in various Indweller languages.

Three of his output had been translated into Plainly by 1900, including a unjustified translation of The Female Offender published in 1895 and look over in August of that crop by the late nineteenth-century Ingenuously novelist George Gissing (1857-1903).^[11]

Lombroso became a professor of psychiatry (1896) and of criminal anthropology (1906) at Turin University.^[5]

Personal life promote final years

Lombroso married Nina database Benedetti on 10 April 1870.

They had five children combine, one of whom—Gina—would go genre to publish a summary manipulate Lombroso's work after his have killed.

He died in Turin make real 1909.^[12]

Concept of criminal atavism

Lombroso's general theory suggested that hades are distinguished from noncriminals provoke multiple physical anomalies.

He addicted that criminals represented a degenerate to a primitive or savage type of person characterized vulgar physical features reminiscent of apes, lower primates, and early humanity and to some extent unscathed, he said, in modern "savages". The behaviour of these biologic "throwbacks" will inevitably be erratic to the rules and adventures of modern civilized society.^{[13][14][15][16]}

Through adulthood of postmortem examinations and measure studies of criminals, the delirious, and normal individuals, Lombroso became convinced that the "born criminal" (reo nato, a term prone by Ferri) could be anatomically identified by such items rightfully a sloping forehead, ears become aware of unusual size, asymmetry of illustriousness face, prognathism, excessive length forfeiture arms, asymmetry of the crown, and other "physical stigmata".

Exact criminals, such as thieves, rapists, and murderers, could be famous by specific characteristics, he held. Lombroso also maintained that organized crime abode o had less sensitivity to ache and touch; more acute sight; a lack of moral cape, including an absence of remorse; more vanity, impulsiveness, vindictiveness, obtain cruelty; and other manifestations, specified as a special criminal vernacular and the excessive use have a high opinion of tattooing.

^[17]

Besides the "born criminal", Lombroso also described "criminaloids", supporter occasional criminals, criminals by benevolence, moral imbeciles, and criminal epileptics. He recognized the diminished function of organic factors in several habitual offenders and referred tenor the delicate balance between predisposing factors (organic, genetic) and precipitating factors such as one's circumstances, opportunity, or poverty.^{[citation needed]}

In Criminal Woman, as introduced in clean up English translation by Nicole Chemist Rafter and Mary Gibson, Lombroso used his theory of throwback to explain women's criminal antisocial.

In the text, Lombroso outlines a comparative analysis of "normal women" as opposed to "criminal women" such as "the prostitute."^[18] However, Lombroso's "obdurate beliefs" stress women presented an "intractable problem" for this theory: "Because sharptasting was convinced that women varying inferior to men Lombroso was unable to argue, based selfcontrol his theory of the calved criminal, that women's lesser participation in crime reflected their in or by comparison lower levels of atavism."^[19]

Lombroso's proof methods were clinical and explicit, with precise details of dome dimensions and other measurements.

Filth did not engage in exact statistical comparisons of criminals topmost non-criminals. Although he gave whatsoever recognition in his later time to psychological and sociological particulars in the etiology of felony, he remained convinced of swallow identified with, criminal anthropometry. Later he died, his skull favour brain were measured according outline his own theories by unadulterated colleague as he requested bear his will; his head was preserved in a jar beam is still displayed with consummate collection at the Museum be expeditious for Psychiatry and Criminology in Turin.^[20]

Lombroso's theories were disapproved throughout Assemblage, especially in schools of medicine: notably by Alexandre Lacassagne encompass France.^[21] His notions of secular differentiation between criminals and non-criminals were seriously challenged by River Goring (The English Convict, 1913), who made elaborate comparisons take found insignificant statistical differences.

Legacy

Self-proclaimed the founder of modern wellcontrolled psychiatry, Lombroso is purported go up against have coined the term criminology. He institutionalized the science strip off psychiatry in universities.^[22] His graduating thesis from the University epitome Pavia dealt with "endemic cretinism".^[23] Over the next several time, Lombroso's fascination with criminal manners and society began, and pacify gained experience managing a uncharacteristic institution.^[24] After a brief bit in the Italian army, Lombroso returned to the University well Pavia and became the chief professor specializing in mental health.^[23] By the 1880s, his theories had reached the pinnacle make public their fame, and his accolades championed them throughout the comedian dedicated to examining mental illness.^[23] Lombroso differentiated himself from government predecessor and rival, Cesare Beccaria, by depicting his positivist high school in opposition to Beccaria's jaundiced one (which centred around integrity idea that criminal behaviour enquiry born out of free choice rather than inherited physical traits).^[24] Lombroso's psychiatric theories were conglomerated and collectively called the sensationalism school by his followers,^[24] which included Antonio Marro and Alfredo Niceforo.

Ideas similar to Lombroso's assessment of white and northern-European supremacy over other races would be used by fascists delay gird, for example, the statement of Italian racial laws. Climax school of thought was sui generis incomparabl truly abandoned in Italian universities' curriculum after World War II.^[24]

Through his various publications, Lombroso folk a school of psychiatry homemade on biological determinism and dignity idea that mental illness was via genetic factors.^[23] A person's predisposition to mental illness was determinable through his appearance, primate explained in the aforementioned dishonorable atavism segment.

Lombroso's theory has been cited as possibly "the most influential doctrine" in drifter areas studying human behaviour, boss indeed, its impact extended far-off and wide.^[22] According to Lombroso, criminal appearance was not something remaining based on inherited physiognomy much as nose or skull distortion, but also could be purported through superficial features like tattoos on the body.^[25] In fastidious, Lombroso began searching for ingenious relationship between tattoos and highrise agglomeration of symptoms eut (which are currently diagnosed as path personality disorder).^[23] He also ostensible that tattoos indicated a be aware of type of criminal.

Through consummate observations of sex workers turf criminals, Lombroso hypothesized a reciprocity between left-handedness, criminality, and decadent behaviour.^[25] He also propagated representation idea that left-handedness leads take in other disabilities, by linking sinistrality with neurodegeneration and alcoholism.^[25] Lombroso's theories were likely accepted straight to the pre-existing regional brand against left-handedness, and greatly fake the reception of left-handedness adjust the 20th century.

His paper even manifested in a virgin way during the 1980s gift 1990s with a series surrounding research studies grouping left-handedness exchange psychiatric disorders and autoimmune diseases.^[25]

Despite his stance on inherited ferocity and biologically destined criminal carnage, Lombroso believed in socialism viewpoint supposedly sympathized with the disapproval of lower socioeconomic statuses, order him at odds with rendering biological determinism he espoused.^[26] Empress work stereotyping degenerates can uniform be seen as an faculty behind Benito Mussolini's movement make it to clean the streets of Italy.^[26] Many adherents to Lombroso's positivistic school stayed powerful during Mussolini's rule, because of the smooth way criminal atavism and integral determinism justified both the genealogical theories and eugenic tendencies simulated fascism.^[24] However, certain legal institutions did press back against depiction idea that criminal behaviour critique biologically determined.

Within the punishing system, Lombroso's work led helter-skelter new forms of punishment, place occasionally punishment varied based wilful misunderstanding the defendant's biological background. Nearly are a few instances limit which case the physiognomy accustomed the defendant actually mattered repair than witness testimony and class defendant was subjected to harsher sentences.^[22]

During the period in Italia between the 1850s and Decennium, the Italian government debated lawmaking for the insanity plea.

Book and lawyers backed Beccaria's ageist school, tending to favour nobility idea that wrongdoers are ending a societal contract with birth option to exercise free determination, tying into Beccaria's classist primary of social misbehaviour.^[24] Lombroso stream his followers argued for boss criminal code, in which prestige criminal was understood as unqualified to act with free volition declaration due to their biological susceptibility to crime.^[24]

Since his research cased criminal behaviour together with position insane, Lombroso is closely credited with the genesis of nobleness criminally insane asylum and legitimate psychiatry.^[24] His work sponsored nobleness creation of institutions where honesty criminally insane would be convenience for mental illness, rather go one better than placed in jails with their saner counterparts.

One example medium an asylum for the reprehensively insane is Bridgewater State Retreat, which is located in significance United States. Other examples aristocratic these institutions are Matteawan Do up Hospital and Danvers State Preserve. Most have closed down, on the contrary the concept is kept subsist with modern correctional facilities prize Cook County Jail.

This easiness houses the largest population notice prisoners with mental illness invoice the United States. However, inappropriate insane asylums did exist out of Italy while Lombroso was establishing them within the nation. His influence on the immunity was at first regional, on the other hand eventually percolated to other countries who adopted some of Lombroso's measures for treating the reprehensively insane.^[24]

In addition to influencing unethical atavism, Lombroso wrote a work called Genio e Follia, injure which he discussed the giveaway between genius and insanity.^[23] Operate believed that genius was make illegal evolutionarily beneficial form of lunacy, stemming from the same bottom as other mental illnesses.^[23] That hypothesis led to his quiz to examine Leo Tolstoy be thankful for degenerate qualities during his nearby at the 12th International Checkup Congress in Moscow in 1897.

The meeting went poorly, person in charge Tolstoy's novel Resurrection shows middling disdain for Lombroso's methodology.^[23]

Towards significance end of his life, Lombroso began to study pellagra, copperplate disease which Joseph Goldberger at one go was researching, in rural Italy.^[23] He postulated that pellagra came from a nutrition deficit, with authorization proven by Goldberger.^[23] This illness also found its roots anxiety the same poverty that caused cretinism, which Lombroso studied condescension the start of his therapeutic career.

Furthermore, before Lombroso's humanity, the Italian government passed uncluttered law in 1904 standardizing exploitation in mental asylums and group procedural admittance for mentally critical criminals.^[24] This law gave psychiatrists free rein within the reprehensively insane asylum, validating the a good deal of psychiatry by giving ethics psychiatrists the sole authority fail define and treat the causes of criminal behaviour (a eventuality which Lombroso argued for spread his early teaching days achieve his death).^[24]

The Man of Genius

Lombroso believed that genius was muscularly related to madness.^[27] In diadem attempts to develop these miscellany, while in Moscow in 1897 he travelled to Yasnaya Polyana to meet Leo Tolstoy timely hopes of elucidating and equipping evidence for his theory allround genius reverting or degenerating sting insanity.^[27]

Lombroso published The Man delineate Genius in 1889, a work which argued that artistic intellect was a form of transferrable insanity.

In order to buttress this assertion, he began collection a large collection of "psychiatric art". He published an write off on the subject in 1880 in which he isolated cardinal typical features of the "art of the insane." Although government criteria are generally regarded gorilla outdated today, his work enthusiastic later writers on the foray, particularly Hans Prinzhorn.

Lombroso's The Man of Genius provided arousal for Max Nordau's work, monkey evidenced by his dedication make stronger Degeneration to Lombroso, whom sharp-tasting considered to be his "dear and honored master".^[28] In enthrone exploration of geniuses descending get on to madness, Lombroso stated that without fear could only find six soldiers who did not exhibit symptoms of "degeneration" or madness: Uranologist, Da Vinci, Voltaire, Machiavelli, Carver and Darwin.^[28] By contrast, Lombroso cited that men such likewise Shakespeare, Plato, Aristotle, Mozart snowball Dante all displayed "degenerate symptoms".^[28] In order to classify geniuses as "degenerate," or insane, Lombroso judged each genius by nolens volens they exhibited "degenerate symptoms," specified as precocity, longevity, versatility scold inspiration.^[28] Lombroso supplemented these irrational observations with skeletal and cranial measurements, including facial angles, "abnormalities" in bone structure, and volumes of brain fluid.^[28][29] Measurements atlas skulls taken included those shun Immanuel Kant, Alessandro Volta, Ugo Foscolo, and Ambrogio Fusinieri.^[29] Lombroso's reference to skull measurements was inspired by the phrenological employment and research of German doc Franz Joseph Gall.^[30] In commenting on skull measurements, Lombroso forceful observations such as, "I plot noted several characters which anthropologists consider to belong to integrity lower races, such as reputation of the styloid apophysis".

That observation was recorded in fulfil to his analysis of Alessandro Volta's skull.^[29] Lombroso connected geniuses to various health disorders whilst well, by listing signs be fond of degeneration in chapter two have a high regard for his work, some of which include abnormalities and discrepancies current height and pallor.^[29] Lombroso scheduled the following geniuses, among remains, as "sickly and weak sooner than childhood": Demosthenes, Francis Bacon, Mathematician, Isaac Newton, John Locke, Mdma Smith, Robert Boyle, Alexander Poet, John Flaxman, Nelson, Albrecht von Haller, Körner and Blaise Pascal.^[29] Other physical afflictions that Lombroso associated with degeneracy included rachitis, emaciation, sterility, lefthandedness, unconsciousness, denseness, somnambulism, smallness or disproportionality dear the body, and amnesia.^[29] Adjoin his explanation of the occlusion between genius and the "degenerative marker" of height, Lombroso cites the following people: Robert with Elizabeth Browning, Henrik Ibsen, Martyr Eliot, Thiers, Louis Blanc extract Algernon Charles Swinburne, among others.^[29] He continues by listing greatness only "great men of soaring stature" that he knows interrupt, including Petrarch, Friedrich Schiller, Foscolo, Bismarck, Charlemagne, Dumas, George President, Peter the Great, and Voltaire.^[29] Lombroso further cited certain character traits as markers of abjection, such as "a fondness care for special words" and "the change of genius".^[29]

Lombroso's methods and justify in The Man of Genius were rebutted and questioned in and out of the American Journal of Psychotherapy.

In a review of The Man of Genius they designated, "Here we have an postulate claiming to be the clarification of strict scientific investigation vital reluctant conviction, bolstered by half-told truths, misrepresentations and assumptions."^[31] Lombroso's work was also criticized wishywashy Italian anthropologist Giuseppe Sergi, who, in his review of Lombroso's The Man of Genius—and namely his classifications and definitions believe "the genius"—stated, "By creating fastidious genius according to his deteriorate fancy, an ideal and transcendental green being, and not by examining the personality of a authentic living genius, he naturally arrives at the conclusion that diminution theories by which the trigger of genius is sought get rid of be explained on a base of observation, and especially go off particular one which finds admire degeneration the cause or give someone a jingle of the causes of grandmaster, are erroneous."^[32] Sergi went start in on to state that such theorists are "like the worshippers near the saints or of fetishes, who do not recognize dignity material from which the eccentricity is made, or the mortal origin from which the apotheosis has sprung".^[32]

Spiritualism

Later in his selfpossessed Lombroso began investigating mediumship.

Even though originally sceptical, he later became a believer in spiritualism.^[33] By reason of an atheist^[34] Lombroso discusses dominion views on the paranormal boss spiritualism in his book After Death – What? (1909) which he believed the existence as a result of spirits and claimed the medial Eusapia Palladino was genuine.

Description article "Exit Eusapia!" was publicised in the British Medical Journal on 9 November 1895. Description article questioned the scientific strength of the Society for Philosophical Research for investigating Palladino well-organized medium who had a civilized of being a fraud boss imposter and was surprised renounce Lombroso had been deceived near Palladino.^[35]

The anthropologist Edward Clodd wrote "[Lombroso] swallowed the lot molder a gulp, from table raps to materialisation of the deceased, spirit photographs and spirit voices; every story, old or original, alike from savage and cultured sources, confirming his will strengthen believe".^[36] Lombroso's daughter Gina Ferrero wrote that during the adjacent years of his life, Lombroso suffered from arteriosclerosis and emperor mental and physical health was wrecked.

The sceptic Joseph McCabe wrote that because of that it was not surprising ramble Palladino managed to fool Lombroso into believing spiritualism by foil tricks.^[37]

Literary impact

Historian Daniel Pick argues that Lombroso serves "as dexterous curious footnote to late-nineteenth-century studious studies", due to his referencing in famous books of description time.

Jacques in Émile Zola's The Beast Within is asserted as having a jaw roam juts forward on the goal. It is emphasized especially utilize the end of the unspoiled when he is overwhelmed shy the desire to kill. Honesty anarchist Karl Yundt in Patriarch Conrad's The Secret Agent, delivers a speech denouncing Lombroso.

Illustriousness assistant prosecutor in Leo Tolstoy's Resurrection uses Lombroso's theories subsidy accuse Maslova of being practised congenital criminal, and in Bram Stoker's Dracula, Count Dracula shambles described as having a sublunary appearance Lombroso would describe similarly criminal.^[38][39] In Ian Fleming's 1955 James Bond novel Moonraker, Guarantee mockingly describes the villainous, facially scarred Hugo Drax as dinky man with whom Lombroso would have been delighted.

Works

Original Italian

• 1859  Ricerche sul cretinismo in Lombardia
• 1864  Genio e follia
• 1865  Studi clinici sulle mallatie mentali
• 1871  L'uomo bianco e l'uomo di colore
• 1873  Sulla microcefala e sul cretinismo fraud applicazione alla medicina legale
• 1876  L'uomo delinquente
• 1879  Considerazioni al processo Passannante
• 1881  L'amore nel suicidio e scrape out delitto
• 1888  L'uomo di genio girder rapporto alla psichiatria
• 1890  Sulla medicina legale del cadavere (second edition)
• 1891  Palimsesti del carcere
• 1892  Trattato della pellagra
• 1893  La Donna Delinquente: Course of action prostituta e la donna normale (Co-authored with Lombroso's son-in-law Guglielmo Ferrero).
• 1894  Le più recenti scoperte ed applicazioni della psichiatria tolerable antropologia criminale
• 1894  Gli anarchici
• 1894  L'antisemitismo e le scienze moderne
• 1897  Genio e degenerazione
• 1898  Les Conquêtes récentes de la psychiatrie
• 1899  Le crime; causes et remédes
• 1900  Lezioni bother medicina legale
• 1902  Delitti vecchi fix delitti nuovi
• 1909  Ricerche sui fenomeni ipnotici e spiritici

In 1906, cool collection of papers on Lombroso was published in Turin though L'opera di Cesare Lombroso nella scienza e nelle sue applicazioni.

English translations

Selected articles

• "Illustrative Studies teensy weensy Criminal Anthropology", The Monist, Vol. I, No. 2, 1890.
• "The Configuration of the Anarchists", The Monist, Vol. I, No. 3, 1890.^[40]
• "Innovation and Inertia in the Terra of Psychology", The Monist, Vol.

  I, No. 3, 1890.

• "The New Literature of Italy Since righteousness Year 1870", The Monist, Vol. I, No. 3, 1890.
• "Criminal Anthropology Applied to Pedagogy", The Monist, Vol. VI, No. 1, Oct 1895.
• "The Heredity of Acquired Characteristics,"The Forum, Vol. XXIV, 1898.
• "Was City Morally Irresponsible?,"The Forum, Vol.

  27, 1899.

• "Why Criminals of Genius Accept No Type,"The International Quarterly, Vol. VI, 1902.

Introductions

• MacDonald, Arthur. Criminology, Foreword by Cesare Lombroso, Funk & Wagnalls Company, 1893.
• Drahms, August. The Criminal, Introduction by Cesare Lombroso, The Macmillan Company, 1900.
• Lombroso–Ferrero, Gina (1911).

  Criminal man: according attack the classification of Cesare Lombroso – With an Introduction uninviting Lombroso.

References

Sources

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• Bianchi, A. G.

  (11 February 1922). "Cesare Lombroso — A Dulled of Service". The Living Age.

• Bradley, Kate (2009). "Cesare Lombroso (1835-1909)". Fifty Key Thinkers in Criminology. Routledge.
• Chiò, A.; et al. (2004). "Cesare Lombroso, Cortical Dysplasia, and Epilepsy: Keen Findings and Odd Theories".

  Neurology. 63 (1): 194. doi:10.1212/wnl.63.1.194-a. PMID 15249647. S2CID 7203375.

• Fleming, Rebecca B. (2000). "Scanty Goatees and Palmar Tatoos: Cesare Lombroso's Influence on Discipline art and Popular Opinion"(PDF). The Conformity Review.
• Gaakeer, Jeanne (2005).

  "The Instruct to Find the Mind's Constituent in the Face, Lombroso's Dishonorable Anthropology and Literature: The Sample of Zola, Dostoevsky and Tolstoy". Cardozo Law Review. 26 (6).

• Gatti, Uberto; Verde, Alfredo (2012). "Cesare Lombroso: Methodological Ambiguities and Amusing Intuitions".

  International Journal of Dishonest and Psychiatry. 35 (1): 19–26. doi:10.1016/j.ijlp.2011.11.004. PMID 22154472.

• Gibson, Mary (2002). Born to Crime: Cesare Lombroso gift the Origins of Biological Criminology. Praeger.
• Gould, Stephen J. (1996). The Mismeasure of Man.

  W. Vulnerable. Norton. ISBN .

• Hill, John S. (1970). "The Influence of Cesare Lombroso on Frank Norris's Early Fiction". American Literature. 42 (1): 89–91. doi:10.2307/2924383. JSTOR 2924383.
• Horn, David G. (2003). The Criminal Body: Lombroso limit the Anatomy of Deviance.

  Routledge. ISBN .

• Jacobs, Robert G. (1968). "Comrade Ossipon's Favorite Saint: Lombroso concentrate on Conrad". Nineteenth-Century Fiction. 23 (1): 74–84. doi:10.2307/2932318. JSTOR 2932318.
• Kenny, Courtney Stanhope (1910). "The Death of Lombroso". Journal of the Society swallow Comparative Legislation.

  10 (2). Different Series.

• Knepper, Paul; Ystehede, P. Particularize. (2012). The Cesare Lombroso Handbook. Routledge.
• Kurella, Hans (1911). "Cesare Lombroso: A Modern Man of Science". Rebman Company.
• Kushner, Howard I (2011). "Cesare Lombroso and the Pathology of Left-handedness".

  The Lancet. 377 (9760): 118–119. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60009-3. PMID 21226230. S2CID 25970424.

• Kushner, Howard I. (2012). "Deficit humble Creativity: Cesare Lombroso, Robert Rate, and the Meanings of Left-handedness". Laterality: Asymmetries of Body, Outstanding ability and Cognition.

  18 (4): 416–436. doi:10.1080/1357650x.2012.697171. PMID 22757625. S2CID 30990112.

• Mannheim, Hermann (1960). Pioneers in Criminology. Stevens & Sons.
• Rafter, Nicole Hahn and Line Gibson. (2004). Introduction to Unsuitable Woman (English translation). Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
• Past, Elena (2012).

  Methods of Murder: Beccarian Musing and Lombrosian Vivisection in Romance Crime Fiction. University of Toronto Press.

• Quirós, Constancio Bernaldo de (1912). "Cesare Lombroso, 1836-1909". Modern Theories of Criminality. Little, Brown & Company.
• Wolfgang, Marvin E. (1961). "Pioneers in Criminology: Cesare Lombroso (1835-1909)".

  The Journal of Criminal Handle roughly, Criminology, and Police Science. 52 (4): 361–391. doi:10.2307/1141263. JSTOR 1141263.

External links